{"showCoverPage":true,"bookCover":{"coverDescription":"

To synthesize proteins in the body, genes first have to copy the genetic information from DNA into small strands of a molecule called RNA or more specifically mRNA. This mRNA is called primary transcript because it has not fully matured yet and to be able to produce proteins, it needs to undergo structural and functional modifications that can strengthen its job. So, the primary transcript undergoes a process called \"Splicing\" where it removes introns (non-coding part of the protein), adds a 5' cap that enables ribosome to recognize the mRNA and a 3' poly A tail to protect itself from pathogens in the cytoplasm. Following processing, a mature RNA is now ready to undergo translation to generate proteins.<\/p>\n\n

The process of translation involves three (3) main stages known as:<\/p>\n\n

initiation<\/strong>, elongation<\/strong> and termination. <\/strong><\/p>\n\n

Browse the book to learn more about each stage and its role in translation.<\/p>\n\n

<\/p>\n","coverMedium":{"library":"H5P.Image 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Image","license":"U","title":"RNA Polymerase Transcription: Scientific Illustration GIF","authors":[{"name":"Art Of The Cell","role":"Author"}],"source":"https:\/\/www.artofthecell.com\/rna-polymerase-transcription\/","yearFrom":2014},"params":{"contentName":"Image","decorative":false,"file":{"path":"images\/coverImage-5f7bbd1c3baed.jpg","mime":"image\/jpeg","width":1920,"height":1200}},"subContentId":"89ec3f88-264d-40fb-8772-cf8eae1f0755"}},"chapters":[{"params":{"content":[{"content":{"params":{"text":"

<\/p>\n\n

Initiation<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n

The process of translation begins with its first stage called initiation. During initiation, the small subunit of the ribosome binds to the 5' cap of the mRNA by recognizing a conserved sequence of methylated guanines on the 5' end of the strand. Recall that this capping was done during the alternative splicing of the primary transcript. Transfer RNA or tRNA comes next with its \"charged\" amino acid and the 3 base pair Anticodon that binds to mRNA. This anti-codon is complementary to the codon sequence on mRNA and therefore binds only to that specific 3 letter nucleotide sequence for which the amino acid is present. The first amino acid for most proteins is methionine (met) which has a anti-codon UAC as shown in Figure 1<\/span><\/span> <\/span>below.<\/span><\/p>\n\n

Eukaryotic Translation Initiation<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.AdvancedText 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Text","license":"U","title":"Untitled Text"},"subContentId":"331559f7-512b-4189-85e0-2950714ef73b"},"useSeparator":"disabled"},{"content":{"params":{"contentName":"Image","alt":"Initiation","title":"Figure 1: Small ribosomal subunit and tRNA attach to the 5'cap on mRNA","file":{"path":"images\/file-5f7978ade53ce.jpg","mime":"image\/jpeg","copyright":{"license":"U"},"width":1920,"height":728}},"library":"H5P.Image 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Image","license":"U","title":"Untitled Image"},"subContentId":"b3d99f77-c427-4e35-980a-a22290d360b6"},"useSeparator":"disabled"},{"content":{"params":{"text":"

Once the tRNA is bounded on the mRNA strand, it starts to scan for the codon sequence of its anti-codon i-e UAC. As it finds the codon sequence AUG, the tRNA stops scanning and binds to mRNA fully, as shown in Figure (2).<\/span><\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.AdvancedText 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Text","license":"U","title":"Untitled Text"},"subContentId":"6d87e31f-3543-4f84-8bfd-a04b3f79310c"},"useSeparator":"disabled"},{"content":{"params":{"contentName":"Image","alt":"Initiation","title":"Figure 2: tRNA attaches its anti-codon to the codon sequence on mRNA","file":{"path":"images\/file-5f79793c3c4dc.jpg","mime":"image\/jpeg","copyright":{"license":"U"},"width":1920,"height":858}},"library":"H5P.Image 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Image","license":"U","title":"Untitled Image"},"subContentId":"a4f93af7-fe0f-4444-ba2f-6ba6bed87a67"},"useSeparator":"auto"},{"content":{"params":{"text":"

The stage of initiation is concluded when the final player i-e large ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA carrying the small subunit and charged\/initiator tRNA Figure (3)<\/span>. The ribosome is now ready to begin translation.<\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.AdvancedText 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Text","license":"U","title":"Untitled Text"},"subContentId":"67327f6c-7727-432e-bbed-0e34e3555edf"},"useSeparator":"disabled"},{"content":{"params":{"contentName":"Image","alt":"Initiation","title":"Figure 3: Large ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA","file":{"path":"images\/file-5f7a68dc1b73d.jpg","mime":"image\/jpeg","copyright":{"license":"U"},"width":1920,"height":605}},"library":"H5P.Image 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Image","license":"U","title":"Untitled Image"},"subContentId":"13671814-25ba-4c78-8c1a-6138e58162bd"},"useSeparator":"disabled"},{"content":{"params":{"media":{"disableImageZooming":false},"correct":"false","behaviour":{"enableRetry":true,"enableSolutionsButton":true,"enableCheckButton":true,"confirmCheckDialog":false,"confirmRetryDialog":false,"autoCheck":false,"feedbackOnCorrect":"Perfect!","feedbackOnWrong":"Try again! :)"},"l10n":{"trueText":"True","falseText":"False","score":"You got @score of @total points","checkAnswer":"Check","showSolutionButton":"Show solution","tryAgain":"Retry","wrongAnswerMessage":"Wrong answer","correctAnswerMessage":"Correct answer","scoreBarLabel":"You got :num out of :total points"},"confirmCheck":{"header":"Finish ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to finish ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Finish"},"confirmRetry":{"header":"Retry ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to retry ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Confirm"},"question":"

A tRNA molecule contains the anti-codon for the mRNA at the top of its structure.<\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.TrueFalse 1.8","metadata":{"contentType":"True\/False Question","license":"U","title":"Quiz Yourself - T\/F 1"},"subContentId":"5f8dfe23-b45e-49df-8068-d8a37adfe07b"},"useSeparator":"disabled"},{"content":{"params":{"media":{"disableImageZooming":false},"correct":"true","behaviour":{"enableRetry":true,"enableSolutionsButton":true,"enableCheckButton":true,"confirmCheckDialog":false,"confirmRetryDialog":false,"autoCheck":false,"feedbackOnCorrect":"Perfect","feedbackOnWrong":"Try Again! :)"},"l10n":{"trueText":"True","falseText":"False","score":"You got @score of @total points","checkAnswer":"Check","showSolutionButton":"Show solution","tryAgain":"Retry","wrongAnswerMessage":"Wrong answer","correctAnswerMessage":"Correct answer","scoreBarLabel":"You got :num out of :total points"},"confirmCheck":{"header":"Finish ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to finish ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Finish"},"confirmRetry":{"header":"Retry ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to retry ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Confirm"},"question":"

The start codon for most protein in an mRNA molecule is AUG.<\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.TrueFalse 1.8","metadata":{"contentType":"True\/False Question","license":"U","title":"Quiz Yourself - T\/F 2"},"subContentId":"28653de7-13f1-49d0-90fa-6428b85ab867"},"useSeparator":"disabled"},{"content":{"params":{"media":{"disableImageZooming":false},"correct":"false","behaviour":{"enableRetry":true,"enableSolutionsButton":true,"enableCheckButton":true,"confirmCheckDialog":false,"confirmRetryDialog":false,"autoCheck":false,"feedbackOnCorrect":"Perfect!","feedbackOnWrong":"Try Again! :)"},"l10n":{"trueText":"True","falseText":"False","score":"You got @score of @total points","checkAnswer":"Check","showSolutionButton":"Show solution","tryAgain":"Retry","wrongAnswerMessage":"Wrong answer","correctAnswerMessage":"Correct answer","scoreBarLabel":"You got :num out of :total points"},"confirmCheck":{"header":"Finish ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to finish ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Finish"},"confirmRetry":{"header":"Retry ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to retry ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Confirm"},"question":"

During initiation, the small ribosomal subunit randomly binds to a sequence on mRNA.<\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.TrueFalse 1.8","metadata":{"contentType":"True\/False Question","license":"U","title":"Quiz Yourself - T\/F 3"},"subContentId":"45c0a2e1-eb9e-4275-b813-875e5e8392d6"},"useSeparator":"auto"}]},"library":"H5P.Column 1.16","subContentId":"98f1bae6-7fe4-40dc-b412-825e82c8dfc1","metadata":{"contentType":"Column","license":"U","title":"Initiation"}},{"params":{"content":[{"useSeparator":"disabled","content":{"params":{"text":"

<\/p>\n\n

Elongation<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n\n

After initiation, our next stage of translation is called elongation. A nice way to remember why it is called elongation is that the polypeptide chain of amino acids is elongated during this stage. Elongation begins when a new tRNA molecule comes and binds to the mRNA in the \"A site\" or the amino acid site. It has the next amino acid attached at its top part and a corresponding anti-codon sequence at its bottom loop that is complementary to the codon sequence on mRNA Figure (4)<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n\n

Eukaryotic Translation Elongation<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.AdvancedText 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Text","license":"U","title":"Untitled Text"},"subContentId":"5ed10f6c-2886-4d61-8080-737f4b076f7f"}},{"content":{"params":{"contentName":"Image","file":{"path":"images\/file-5f7aa3fd8df4d.jpg","mime":"image\/jpeg","copyright":{"license":"U"},"width":1920,"height":919},"alt":"Elongation","title":"Figure 4: New tRNA comes with a bound amino acid and settles onto the mRNA"},"library":"H5P.Image 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Image","license":"U","title":"Untitled Image"},"subContentId":"8a8546b9-b005-4c52-a63d-6951d9670cad"},"useSeparator":"auto"},{"content":{"params":{"text":"

Once the two tRNA's are stably bound to their corresponding codon sequences on the mRNA, an enzyme called peptidyl tranferase drives a chemical reaction that binds the first amino acid in the \"P site\" or the polypeptide site to the second amino acid in the \"A site\" through the formation of a peptide bond Figure (5)<\/span><\/span>. This enzyme is very important in its functions such that it generates a polypeptide chain of amino acids at the end of translation.<\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.AdvancedText 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Text","license":"U","title":"Untitled Text"},"subContentId":"04abe8a8-adf5-437a-9395-d9ce5c277627"},"useSeparator":"disabled"},{"content":{"params":{"contentName":"Image","alt":"Elongation","title":"Figure 5: Peptide bond is formed between the two charged amino acids","file":{"path":"images\/file-5f7ab91d8f7b9.jpg","mime":"image\/jpeg","copyright":{"license":"U"},"width":1920,"height":518}},"library":"H5P.Image 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Image","license":"U","title":"Untitled Image"},"subContentId":"12be4284-265e-4111-8f05-ee38b05c0493"},"useSeparator":"auto"},{"content":{"params":{"text":"

After the peptide bond is formed, the initiator tRNA that carried the first amino acid (met) leaves the ribosome while pausing briefly in the \"E site\" or the exit site. The tRNA that contains our polypeptide chain is still in the \"A site\". In a process called translocation, the ribosome shifts to the left side and the tRNA moves from \"A site\" to the \"P site\" as shown in Figure (6). <\/span>This <\/span>leaves the \"A site\" empty which can now attach a new tRNA molecule that contains the next charged amino acid. This cycle continues in a recurrent manner as the ribosome moves along the mRNA strand.<\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.AdvancedText 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Text","license":"U","title":"Untitled Text"},"subContentId":"0dfedbb9-bc7d-4f16-96bf-b0dabcd45c95"},"useSeparator":"disabled"},{"content":{"params":{"contentName":"Image","file":{"path":"images\/file-5f7b96f0f356c.jpg","mime":"image\/jpeg","copyright":{"license":"U"},"width":1920,"height":475},"alt":"Elongation","title":"Figure 6: Translocation of the ribosome to add new tRNA's"},"library":"H5P.Image 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Image","license":"U","title":"Untitled Image"},"subContentId":"b2e32eae-d28d-40df-8293-945d4aa87501"},"useSeparator":"auto"},{"content":{"params":{"media":{"disableImageZooming":false},"correct":"false","behaviour":{"enableRetry":true,"enableSolutionsButton":true,"enableCheckButton":true,"confirmCheckDialog":false,"confirmRetryDialog":false,"autoCheck":false,"feedbackOnCorrect":"Perfect!","feedbackOnWrong":"Try Again! :)"},"l10n":{"trueText":"True","falseText":"False","score":"You got @score of @total points","checkAnswer":"Check","showSolutionButton":"Show solution","tryAgain":"Retry","wrongAnswerMessage":"Wrong answer","correctAnswerMessage":"Correct answer","scoreBarLabel":"You got :num out of :total points"},"confirmCheck":{"header":"Finish ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to finish ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Finish"},"confirmRetry":{"header":"Retry ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to retry ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Confirm"},"question":"

A ribosome can hold more than two tRNA's at a time during elongation.<\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.TrueFalse 1.8","metadata":{"contentType":"True\/False Question","license":"U","title":"Quiz Yourself - T\/F 1"},"subContentId":"3e857268-c54c-4ffa-9d86-3e3769682b7b"},"useSeparator":"auto"},{"content":{"params":{"media":{"disableImageZooming":false},"correct":"false","behaviour":{"enableRetry":true,"enableSolutionsButton":true,"enableCheckButton":true,"confirmCheckDialog":false,"confirmRetryDialog":false,"autoCheck":false,"feedbackOnCorrect":"Perfect!","feedbackOnWrong":"Try Again! :)"},"l10n":{"trueText":"True","falseText":"False","score":"You got @score of @total points","checkAnswer":"Check","showSolutionButton":"Show solution","tryAgain":"Retry","wrongAnswerMessage":"Wrong answer","correctAnswerMessage":"Correct answer","scoreBarLabel":"You got :num out of :total points"},"confirmCheck":{"header":"Finish ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to finish ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Finish"},"confirmRetry":{"header":"Retry ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to retry ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Confirm"},"question":"

Translocation is an important stage during elongation that allows the ribosome to shift towards the 3' end or the right direction of the mRNA and a new tRNA is attached in the A site.<\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.TrueFalse 1.8","metadata":{"contentType":"True\/False Question","license":"U","title":"Quiz Yourself - T\/F 2"},"subContentId":"8287ec02-c1b7-4b47-89d0-5672d571f654"},"useSeparator":"auto"},{"content":{"params":{"media":{"disableImageZooming":false},"correct":"true","behaviour":{"enableRetry":true,"enableSolutionsButton":true,"enableCheckButton":true,"confirmCheckDialog":false,"confirmRetryDialog":false,"autoCheck":false,"feedbackOnCorrect":"Perfect!","feedbackOnWrong":"Try Again! :)"},"l10n":{"trueText":"True","falseText":"False","score":"You got @score of @total points","checkAnswer":"Check","showSolutionButton":"Show solution","tryAgain":"Retry","wrongAnswerMessage":"Wrong answer","correctAnswerMessage":"Correct answer","scoreBarLabel":"You got :num out of :total points"},"confirmCheck":{"header":"Finish ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to finish ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Finish"},"confirmRetry":{"header":"Retry ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to retry ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Confirm"},"question":"

Peptidyl transferase catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between two amino acids. <\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.TrueFalse 1.8","metadata":{"contentType":"True\/False Question","license":"U","title":"Quiz Yourself - T\/F 3"},"subContentId":"4fd561a3-8bc0-436b-a2ea-3083bec773fc"},"useSeparator":"auto"}]},"library":"H5P.Column 1.16","subContentId":"6df97e9b-c9c8-41d5-b4c8-34528e883564","metadata":{"contentType":"Column","license":"U","title":"Elongation"}},{"params":{"content":[{"useSeparator":"auto","content":{"params":{"text":"

<\/p>\n\n

Termination<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n\n

The ribosome continues to move forward along the mRNA, until it encounters a stop codon.This stop codon does not code for the protein but only signals the end of translation. A release factor binds at the stop codon that help disassemble the translation machinery. The ribosomal units come apart, the mRNA and tRNA molecules are recycled and the polypeptide chain is realeased into the cytoplasm for its next steps in protein formation. The process of translation concludes here but we need to keep in mind that this alone does not produce a functional protein, there are many important post-translational modifications that this protein needs to undergo before it can begin its function.<\/p>\n\n

<\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.AdvancedText 1.1","metadata":{"contentType":"Text","license":"U","title":"Untitled Text"},"subContentId":"94d4cfc2-4f35-44c7-8dc7-9e7e41c49697"}},{"content":{"params":{"media":{"disableImageZooming":false},"correct":"false","behaviour":{"enableRetry":true,"enableSolutionsButton":true,"enableCheckButton":true,"confirmCheckDialog":false,"confirmRetryDialog":false,"autoCheck":false,"feedbackOnCorrect":"Perfect!","feedbackOnWrong":"Try Again! :)"},"l10n":{"trueText":"True","falseText":"False","score":"You got @score of @total points","checkAnswer":"Check","showSolutionButton":"Show solution","tryAgain":"Retry","wrongAnswerMessage":"Wrong answer","correctAnswerMessage":"Correct answer","scoreBarLabel":"You got :num out of :total points"},"confirmCheck":{"header":"Finish ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to finish ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Finish"},"confirmRetry":{"header":"Retry ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to retry ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Confirm"},"question":"

A stop codon codes for the protein. <\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.TrueFalse 1.8","metadata":{"contentType":"True\/False Question","license":"U","title":"Quiz Yourself - T\/F 1"},"subContentId":"94c2c600-90ac-453e-a6d7-ba762fb67084"},"useSeparator":"auto"},{"content":{"params":{"media":{"disableImageZooming":false},"correct":"false","behaviour":{"enableRetry":true,"enableSolutionsButton":true,"enableCheckButton":true,"confirmCheckDialog":false,"confirmRetryDialog":false,"autoCheck":false,"feedbackOnCorrect":"Perfect!","feedbackOnWrong":"Try Again! :)"},"l10n":{"trueText":"True","falseText":"False","score":"You got @score of @total points","checkAnswer":"Check","showSolutionButton":"Show solution","tryAgain":"Retry","wrongAnswerMessage":"Wrong answer","correctAnswerMessage":"Correct answer","scoreBarLabel":"You got :num out of :total points"},"confirmCheck":{"header":"Finish ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to finish ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Finish"},"confirmRetry":{"header":"Retry ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to retry ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Confirm"},"question":"

A functionally stable protein is produced at the end of termination that can begin its job right away. <\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.TrueFalse 1.8","metadata":{"contentType":"True\/False Question","license":"U","title":"Quiz Yourself - T\/F 2"},"subContentId":"c4f5c88f-e779-431d-bdff-29cfb7ba8665"},"useSeparator":"auto"},{"content":{"params":{"media":{"disableImageZooming":false},"correct":"true","behaviour":{"enableRetry":true,"enableSolutionsButton":true,"enableCheckButton":true,"confirmCheckDialog":false,"confirmRetryDialog":false,"autoCheck":false,"feedbackOnCorrect":"Perfect!","feedbackOnWrong":"Try Again! :)"},"l10n":{"trueText":"True","falseText":"False","score":"You got @score of @total points","checkAnswer":"Check","showSolutionButton":"Show solution","tryAgain":"Retry","wrongAnswerMessage":"Wrong answer","correctAnswerMessage":"Correct answer","scoreBarLabel":"You got :num out of :total points"},"confirmCheck":{"header":"Finish ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to finish ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Finish"},"confirmRetry":{"header":"Retry ?","body":"Are you sure you wish to retry ?","cancelLabel":"Cancel","confirmLabel":"Confirm"},"question":"

The mRNA and tRNA molecules after the translation are recycled to be used for the new round of protein production. <\/p>\n"},"library":"H5P.TrueFalse 1.8","metadata":{"contentType":"True\/False Question","license":"U","title":"Quiz Yourself - T\/F 3"},"subContentId":"5c3f934d-978d-4124-8df2-f54562001d09"},"useSeparator":"auto"}]},"library":"H5P.Column 1.16","subContentId":"cb101ee8-b0ba-4adf-95fd-137118afe0c4","metadata":{"contentType":"Column","license":"U","title":"Termination"}},{"params":{"content":[{"content":{"params":{"interactiveVideo":{"video":{"startScreenOptions":{"title":"Here's a quick video on Protein Synthesis!","hideStartTitle":false},"textTracks":{"videoTrack":[{"label":"Subtitles","kind":"subtitles","srcLang":"en"}]},"files":[{"path":"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=5bLEDd-PSTQ","mime":"video\/YouTube","copyright":{"license":"U","title":"Translation","author":"ndsuvirtualcell","year":"2008","source":"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=5bLEDd-PSTQ"}}]},"assets":{"endscreens":[{"time":213,"label":"3:33 Submit screen"}]},"summary":{"task":{"library":"H5P.Summary 1.10","params":{"intro":"Choose the correct statement.","summaries":[{"subContentId":"cf87c68b-a296-423b-b72c-2ee7d3e7fe3e","tip":""}],"overallFeedback":[{"from":0,"to":100}],"solvedLabel":"Progress:","scoreLabel":"Wrong answers:","resultLabel":"Your result","labelCorrect":"Correct.","labelIncorrect":"Incorrect! 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The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis

Fatima Sahibzada